Plant Profile: 𝐒𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐬

Galanthus nivalis, commonly known as the snowdrop (or ‘Shame-faced maiden; in Wiltshire), is a perennial bulbous plant that belongs to the Amaryllidaceae family. It is native to Europe and the Middle East, and is widely cultivated in gardens and parks across the world. The first records of the snowdrop growing wild in Britain hark back to the 1770s.

The plant has narrow linear leaves and produces a single white flower that hangs from a slender stem. The flower has six petals, three inner and three outer, and is surrounded by a green ovary.

The snowdrop has a rich social history and is associated with hope and purity. It is one of the first plants to emerge from the cold winter soil, and has been used as a symbol of the coming of spring and the end of winter. The plant has also been used in traditional medicine to treat a variety of ailments, including headaches, fever, and joint pain.

There are several varieties of Galanthus nivalis, including the ‘Flore Pleno’, which has double flowers, and the ‘Viridapice’, which has green-tipped petals. The snowdrop has also been the subject of mythology and folklore and is said to have been created by the Greek god of the north wind, Boreas.

Said to be best planted ‘in the green’, rather than dormant bulbs, the snowdrop is known to attract bees and other insects, and is an important source of early-season nectar and pollen. It is also a valuable food source for small mammals such as voles and mice.

Galanthophiles, those that collect snowdrops, have been known to bid into the hundreds for just a single bulb, with the world’s most expensive snowdrop bulb being sold for £1,850 in 2012. The Golden Fleece snowdrop took 18 years to develop and holds the record for a single bulb, which was sold for £1,390.

In conclusion, Galanthus nivalis is a beautiful and fascinating plant with a rich history and mythology. Its delicate white flowers and slender stems make it a popular choice for gardens and parks, and its association with hope and purity has made it an enduring symbol of spring and new beginnings.

Here are some tips for growing snowdrops

Planting: Snowdrops should be planted in well-drained, nutrient-rich soil in a sunny or partly shaded location. They should be planted in the autumn before the ground freezes. Plant the bulbs two to three inches deep and two to four inches apart.

Watering: Water the bulbs regularly and keep the soil moist but not soggy.

Light: Grow snowdrops in moist but well-drained, hummus-rich soil in dappled shade.
Try growing snowdrops beneath deciduous shrubs, such as Cornus alba ‘Sibirica’, or along the front of borders where herbaceous plants can provide ground cover when the snowdrops are dormant.

Propagation: Snowdrops can be propagated by division in the spring or summer, or by seed in the autumn

Photographs: Galanthus nivalis, snowdrop cultivated variety, snowdrop seedheads.

Plant Lifecycle Adaptations

Personal notes for RHS Level 2 Certificate in the Principles of Plant Growth and Development
Unit 1: Plant Science 1: Lifecycle adaptations: AO2 Application

Plant life cycle adaptations have several advantages that help them survive in different environments. Some of these advantages include:

Exploitation of short growing season: In regions with a short growing season, plants have adapted to grow and reproduce quickly before the onset of winter. This adaptation allows them to complete their life cycle within a short period of time and produce seeds that can survive the winter and germinate in the following spring.

For example: Alpine forget-me-not: This plant is found in the alpine regions of Europe and has adapted to grow and reproduce quickly before the onset of winter.

Avoidance of extreme weather conditions: Plants have evolved various mechanisms to avoid extreme weather conditions such as drought, frost, and heatwaves. For example, some plants have developed deep roots to access water from underground sources, while others have developed thick leaves to reduce water loss through transpiration.

For example: Cushion plants: These plants are compact and low-growing, which helps them survive in cold and windy conditions. They trap airborne dust and use it as a source of nutrients.

Ecological niches: Plants have adapted to occupy specific ecological niches, which are unique habitats that provide specific environmental conditions. For example, some plants have adapted to grow in acidic soils, while others have adapted to grow in saline soils.

For example: xerophytic plants such as Joshua tree which has evolved a deep root system that allows it to access water stored deep in the soil. Its spiky leaves also help to reduce water loss through transpiration.

Growth in less favourable conditions: Plants have adapted to grow in less favourable conditions such as low light, low nutrient availability, and high salinity. For example, some plants have developed mechanisms to capture and digest insects to obtain nutrients, while others have developed symbiotic relationships with fungi to obtain nutrients.

For example, plants known as halophytes have evolved to tolerate high levels of salt in their environment, this includes Hibiscus syriacus, also known as rose of Sharon, this plant is a moderately salt-tolerant shrub that can grow in saline soils but in more extreme environments, Spartina alterniflora, also known as smooth cordgrass, is a plant that is found in salt marshes and can tolerate high levels of salt in the soil.

These adaptations have allowed plants to thrive in different environments and play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of ecosystems.

Agents of natural pollination

Personal notes for RHS Level 2 Certificate in the Principles of Plant Growth and Development

Unit 1: Plant Science 1: Pollination and fertilisation: AO1

The agents of natural pollination are diverse and can be broadly classified into two categories: biotic and abiotic.

𝐁𝐢𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐚𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 include pollinating animals such as bees, moths, flies, and birds.

The biotic agents are attracted to a flower due to such features as its colour, shape, or aroma.

The visitor to a flower then becomes a potential agent for pollination transfer, with the pollen from the male reproductive organ, known as the anther, dusted onto the animal's body. Should the animal then visit another flower of the same species, this pollen may then be inadvertently brushed onto the stigma, the female reproductive organ.

Whether pollination successfully leads to fertilisation on the same flower, or a different flower of the same species will depend on the species visited.


Flower shape can be a determining factor as to which species are able to visit the flower. Some flowers have evolved to perfectly match specific animal species. Perhaps, the most well-known example of this is the Star orchid (Angraecum sesquipedale), which is pollinated by the long-tongued moth commonly known as Morgan's predicted Sphinx moth. In 1862, Charles Darwin examined this orchid, predicting (supported by Alfred Russel Wallace) that a long-tongued moth would be found that pollinated it; no moth with that extreme length of tongue was known at the time.

Then, in 1903, he was proven correct when a long-tongued moth, Xanthopan morganii praedicta was discovered. It was so named because its occurrence had been predicted.

𝐀𝐛𝐢𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐚𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 include wind and water.

Wind-pollinated plants produce large amounts of pollen that is light in weight and easily carried by the wind. Some examples of wind-pollinated plants in the UK include willow (Salix), alder (Alnus), and birch (Betula)


Water-pollinated plants, on the other hand, release their pollen into the water, where it is carried to the female reproductive organs. Some examples of water-pollinated plants in the UK include water thyme (Hydrilla), ditch grasses (Ruppia), and waterweeds (Elodea).

Photo: Bumblebee (Bombus species) visiting Cowslip (Primula veris).

Basics of Life cycle adaptations

Personal notes for RHS Level 2 Certificate in the Principles of Plant Growth and Development
Unit 1: Plant Science 1: Lifecycle adaptations: AO1

Life cycle adaptations are the ways that plants have evolved to survive and reproduce in different environments. Based on their life cycle, plants can be classified into five categories:

• Ephemeral plants are those that have several life cycles in one growing season. They can germinate, grow, flower, and produce seeds in a short period of time, usually in response to favourable conditions such as rainfall. They can increase in numbers rapidly and colonize disturbed habitats. An example of an ephemeral plant is groundsel (Senecio vulgaris).
• Annual plants are those that complete their life cycle in one year or growing season. They germinate from seeds, grow, flower, produce seeds, and die within a year. They can be hardy, half-hardy, or tender, depending on their ability to withstand frost and low temperatures. Examples of annual plants are zinnia (Zinnia elegans) and marigold (Tagetes patula).
• Biennial plants are those that complete their life cycle in two years or growing seasons. They germinate from seeds and grow vegetatively in the first year, then flower, produce seeds, and die in the second year. Some plants that are botanically perennials are grown as biennials because they perform poorly after flowering. Examples of biennial plants are foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) and wallflower (Erysimum cheiri).
• Perennial plants are those that live for more than two years or growing seasons. They can be herbaceous or woody, depending on the presence or absence of secondary growth in their stems. Herbaceous perennials are non-woody plants that die back to a rootstock each autumn and regrow in the following spring.
  Examples of herbaceous perennials are hop (Humulus lupulus) and peony (Paeonia lactiflora).
  Woody perennials are plants that maintain live woody stems throughout the year and exhibit secondary growth. Examples of woody perennials are lilac (Syringa vulgaris) and oak (Quercus spp.).