Indoor potting tasks with my helper

School is on half term where I live, so I had a little horticulture helper with potting up two begonia maculata that I'd propagated by water (and left a bit too long) and potting on a Hawthoria that is desperate to expand.

My helper breaking up the clumps of the soil.

Any sort of gardening with ME tends to have to happen when the energy is available. This can often mean that plants have to see to their own survival to some degree. 

The begonia could have been planted up around 6 months ago and the Hawthoria quite some time before that.

However, both have survived so far and look healthy enough to make progress now that they have received some TLC.

At some point soon, I have some cacti that require some care. Fingers crossed it is sooner, rather than later!

Plant profile: Dahlias

Native to Mexico and Central America, dahlias have a rich history dating back to the Aztecs, who valued them for their medicinal and culinary properties. Their vibrant beauty captivated European explorers in the 18th century, leading to their introduction to European gardens in 1789. Since then, dahlias have become synonymous with elegance and have played a significant role in horticultural culture.

Botanically, dahlias are tuberous perennials belonging to the Asteraceae family. They exhibit a remarkable diversity of flower forms, ranging from simple singles to intricate pom-poms, and come in a kaleidoscope of colours, excluding blue. These stunning flowers thrive in sunny locations with well-draining soil, requiring regular watering and fertilisation to reach their full potential.

𝗗𝗮𝗵𝗹𝗶𝗮𝘀 𝗮𝗿𝗲 𝗮 𝗺𝗮𝗴𝗻𝗲𝘁 𝗳𝗼𝗿 𝗽𝗼𝗹𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗮𝘁𝗼𝗿𝘀, 𝗽𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗶𝗰𝘂𝗹𝗮𝗿𝗹𝘆 𝘃𝗮𝗿𝗶𝗲𝘁𝗶𝗲𝘀 𝘄𝗶𝘁𝗵 𝘀𝗶𝗺𝗽𝗹𝗲𝗿, 𝘀𝗶𝗻𝗴𝗹𝗲-𝗽𝗲𝘁𝗮𝗹 𝗮𝗿𝗿𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗺𝗲𝗻𝘁𝘀 𝘁𝗵𝗮𝘁 𝗽𝗿𝗼𝘃𝗶𝗱𝗲 𝗲𝗮𝘀𝘆 𝗮𝗰𝗰𝗲𝘀𝘀 𝘁𝗼 𝗻𝗲𝗰𝘁𝗮𝗿 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗽𝗼𝗹𝗹𝗲𝗻. 𝗕𝗲𝗲𝘀, 𝗯𝘂𝘁𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗳𝗹𝗶𝗲𝘀, 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗼𝘁𝗵𝗲𝗿 𝗯𝗲𝗻𝗲𝗳𝗶𝗰𝗶𝗮𝗹 𝗶𝗻𝘀𝗲𝗰𝘁𝘀 𝗮𝗿𝗲 𝗱𝗿𝗮𝘄𝗻 𝘁𝗼 𝘁𝗵𝗲𝘀𝗲 𝘃𝗶𝗯𝗿𝗮𝗻𝘁 𝗯𝗹𝗼𝗼𝗺𝘀, 𝗺𝗮𝗸𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗱𝗮𝗵𝗹𝗶𝗮𝘀 𝗮𝗻 𝗶𝗻𝘃𝗮𝗹𝘂𝗮𝗯𝗹𝗲 𝗮𝗱𝗱𝗶𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝘁𝗼 𝗮𝗻𝘆 𝗽𝗼𝗹𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗮𝘁𝗼𝗿-𝗳𝗿𝗶𝗲𝗻𝗱𝗹𝘆 𝗴𝗮𝗿𝗱𝗲𝗻. For instance, the dahlia cultivar 'Bishop of Llandaff' with its bright red, single-petal blooms is a favourite among pollinators. Another popular choice is the 'Dahlia Inca' with its cheerful yellow petals and prominent central disc, which attracts a variety of bees and butterflies.

Beyond their horticultural appeal, dahlias have cultural significance, particularly in the Victorian era, where they symbolised dignity and instability. The popularity of dahlias led to a proliferation of cultivars and the establishment of dedicated flower shows, showcasing their stunning beauty. Today, dahlias remain a beloved floral choice for arrangements, weddings, and garden displays worldwide, admired for their vibrant colours, intricate forms, and historical significance.

Plant Profile: 𝑺𝒏𝒐𝒘𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒚 - 𝑺𝒚𝒎𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒑𝒐𝒔 Symphoricarpos

Native to Mexico and Central America, dahlias have a rich history dating back to the Aztecs, who valued them for their medicinal and culinary properties. Their vibrant beauty captivated European explorers in the 18th century, leading to their introduction to European gardens in 1789. Since then, dahlias have become synonymous with elegance and have played a significant role in horticultural culture.

Botanically, dahlias are tuberous perennials belonging to the Asteraceae family. They exhibit a remarkable diversity of flower forms, ranging from simple singles to intricate pom-poms, and come in a kaleidoscope of colours, excluding blue. These stunning flowers thrive in sunny locations with well-draining soil, requiring regular watering and fertilisation to reach their full potential.

𝗗𝗮𝗵𝗹𝗶𝗮𝘀 𝗮𝗿𝗲 𝗮 𝗺𝗮𝗴𝗻𝗲𝘁 𝗳𝗼𝗿 𝗽𝗼𝗹𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗮𝘁𝗼𝗿𝘀, 𝗽𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗶𝗰𝘂𝗹𝗮𝗿𝗹𝘆 𝘃𝗮𝗿𝗶𝗲𝘁𝗶𝗲𝘀 𝘄𝗶𝘁𝗵 𝘀𝗶𝗺𝗽𝗹𝗲𝗿, 𝘀𝗶𝗻𝗴𝗹𝗲-𝗽𝗲𝘁𝗮𝗹 𝗮𝗿𝗿𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗺𝗲𝗻𝘁𝘀 𝘁𝗵𝗮𝘁 𝗽𝗿𝗼𝘃𝗶𝗱𝗲 𝗲𝗮𝘀𝘆 𝗮𝗰𝗰𝗲𝘀𝘀 𝘁𝗼 𝗻𝗲𝗰𝘁𝗮𝗿 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗽𝗼𝗹𝗹𝗲𝗻. 𝗕𝗲𝗲𝘀, 𝗯𝘂𝘁𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗳𝗹𝗶𝗲𝘀, 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗼𝘁𝗵𝗲𝗿 𝗯𝗲𝗻𝗲𝗳𝗶𝗰𝗶𝗮𝗹 𝗶𝗻𝘀𝗲𝗰𝘁𝘀 𝗮𝗿𝗲 𝗱𝗿𝗮𝘄𝗻 𝘁𝗼 𝘁𝗵𝗲𝘀𝗲 𝘃𝗶𝗯𝗿𝗮𝗻𝘁 𝗯𝗹𝗼𝗼𝗺𝘀, 𝗺𝗮𝗸𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗱𝗮𝗵𝗹𝗶𝗮𝘀 𝗮𝗻 𝗶𝗻𝘃𝗮𝗹𝘂𝗮𝗯𝗹𝗲 𝗮𝗱𝗱𝗶𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝘁𝗼 𝗮𝗻𝘆 𝗽𝗼𝗹𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗮𝘁𝗼𝗿-𝗳𝗿𝗶𝗲𝗻𝗱𝗹𝘆 𝗴𝗮𝗿𝗱𝗲𝗻. For instance, the dahlia cultivar 'Bishop of Llandaff' with its bright red, single-petal blooms is a favourite among pollinators. Another popular choice is the 'Dahlia Inca' with its cheerful yellow petals and prominent central disc, which attracts a variety of bees and butterflies.

Beyond their horticultural appeal, dahlias have cultural significance, particularly in the Victorian era, where they symbolised dignity and instability. The popularity of dahlias led to a proliferation of cultivars and the establishment of dedicated flower shows, showcasing their stunning beauty. Today, dahlias remain a beloved floral choice for arrangements, weddings, and garden displays worldwide, admired for their vibrant colours, intricate forms, and historical significance.

Plant Profile: 𝐂𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐨𝐫𝐲 - 𝐂𝐢𝐜𝐡𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐲𝐛𝐮𝐬

Chicory (Cichorium intybus) is a perennial plant native to Europe and Asia Minor, with a long history in the UK. Its roots have been used as a coffee substitute, particularly during wartime when coffee beans were scarce. The bitter taste of chicory roots was often appreciated as a contrast to the sweetness of milk and sugar.

Botanically, chicory is an erect fairly woody perennial herb known for its bright blue flowers, which are often seen in meadows and along roadsides. The plant's leaves are edible and can be added to salads or cooked. Chicory also has ecological benefits, attracting pollinators such as bees and butterflies. It is a hardy plant that can thrive in a variety of conditions, including poor soils.

The history of chicory in the UK dates back centuries. It was cultivated by the Romans, who used it as a medicinal herb. During the Middle Ages, chicory was grown in monastery gardens and used in herbal remedies. In more recent times, it gained popularity as a coffee substitute during World War II, when coffee imports were disrupted.

In Wiltshire and the West of England, chicory may be known by local names, though these are less common today. It might have been referred to as "succory" or "wild endive."

Chicory has also been used in traditional medicine. Its roots and leaves are believed to have diuretic, digestive, and anti-inflammatory properties. In some cultures, chicory is associated with folklore and mythology. It is said to be a symbol of love, loyalty, and perseverance.

Today, chicory is still grown in the UK for its roots, which are used to make coffee substitutes and herbal teas. It is also cultivated as a forage crop for livestock and as a decorative plant. As a versatile and resilient plant with a rich history, chicory continues to play a role in the British landscape and culture.

𝐏𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐟𝐢𝐥𝐞: 𝐀𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝐮𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐮𝐦

Allium ursinum, commonly known as wild garlic, ramsons, or traditionally in Wiltshire: Badger’s flowers, is a bulbous perennial flowering plant belonging to the amaryllis family (Amaryllidaceae).

It is native to Europe and Asia, thriving in moist woodlands, fields, and hedgerows.

The name “ursinum” translates to ‘bear,’ possibly because bears were believed to consume wild garlic after hibernation.

Its long, pointed, oval leaves emit a strong garlic scent, and small white flowers cluster on leafless stalks.

In Irish folklore, wild garlic was metaphorically associated with bitterness. A saying in County Donegal described it as “as bitter as wild garlic”.

The belief that bears ate wild garlic to regain strength after hibernation led to its common name “bear garlic” or “bear’s garlic”.

Some cultures considered wild garlic a symbol of strength, courage, and renewal. Soldiers even used it before battle.

To use for culinary purposes, harvest the leaves before flowering. They have a sweet and pungent taste, making them excellent raw in salads or as pesto. Cooked leaves can be used in soups and side dishes. The bulbs and leaf bulbils are also edible. While many now collect ramsons as a wild food, there appears little evidence that it was gathered as a food in the British Isles.

Wild garlic possesses antibacterial, antibiotic, and antiseptic properties. It may help reduce blood pressure and promote heart health.

The bulb was a key ingredient in tonics for rheumatic problems and high cholesterol. It was also used to flavour butter.

Note: The above is for information only. Before using any plants for food or other uses, please perform your own research and ensure that you can 100% identify the plant before picking and use.

𝐌𝐚𝐫𝐬𝐡 𝐌𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐨𝐥𝐝 (𝘊𝘢𝘭𝘵𝘩𝘢 𝘱𝘢𝘭𝘶𝘴𝘵𝘳𝘪𝘴)

Let’s delve into the captivating world of Marsh Marigold (𝘊𝘢𝘭𝘵𝘩𝘢 𝘱𝘢𝘭𝘶𝘴𝘵𝘳𝘪𝘴), a vibrant perennial plant native to wetlands in Europe and North America.

The Marsh Marigold, scientifically known as 𝘊𝘢𝘭𝘵𝘩𝘢 𝘱𝘢𝘭𝘶𝘴𝘵𝘳𝘪𝘴 belongs to the Ranunculaceae family. Caltha refers to the cup-shaped flowers, with palustris meaning 'of marshland'. Its glossy green leaves and bright yellow flowers make it a captivating sight in wetland habitats.

Bright Yellow Flowers: One of its most striking features is its vibrant yellow flowers, which bloom in early spring. These cheerful blossoms attract wildlife and serve as an essential source of nectar for early pollinators like bees and butterflies. Interestingly, while these petals appear uniformly yellow to us, insects perceive the upper part as a mixture of yellow and ultraviolet color, often referred to as "bee’s purple".

Water-Loving Plant: As its name suggests, Marsh Marigold thrives in wet, marshy areas. You’ll find it growing near ponds, streams, and ditches, where it contributes to the rich biodiversity of these ecosystems.

Medicinal Properties: Marsh Marigold has a history of use in traditional medicine. Its diuretic, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing properties have been valued traditionally all by herbalists. However, utmost caution is required, as the plant contains toxins that can cause irritation if not properly prepared.

Symbol of Courage: In folklore and mythology, Marsh Marigold symbolizes bravery and strength in the face of adversity. It was believed to have protective powers and was used to ward off evil spirits.

Ecological Importance: Beyond its beauty, Marsh Marigold plays a crucial role in wetland ecosystems. It provides food and habitat for various organisms, stabilizes soil, and prevents erosion. Pollinators, including hoverflies, visit its flowers, ensuring its reproductive success.

Locally, you can find marsh marigold along the abberd brook, such as tis recently planted specimen: https://www.facebook.com/CalneCommunityNatureReserve/posts/pfbid0B3yguXqD7smdAXaByNURYBmR9oYHkfkmKTnYEdN7FrVCcJhF3cvGp6wJf7dcuLydl

Plant Profile: 𝑯𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒃𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒔 (𝑯𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒃𝒐𝒓𝒖𝒔 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒔)

At first glance, some hellebores are really nothing to look at, especially with face down to the soil as

many have evolved to grow. This can often be extreme enough that those in a border may be dismissed as a clump of foliage or missed altogether. However, with a bit of attention, their beauty mesmerises, and they shine.

While hellebores are well grown in gardens as a reliable perennial herb, Britain is the native home to only two species, which are woodland plants: stinking hellebore (Helleborus foetidus) and green hellebore (Helleborus viridis) known as green lily in Wiltshire.

Research published in 2010 discovered that yeast in the nectar of H. foetidus actually warms the flowers. As the yeast feed on the sugars within the nectar, their metabolic activity can raise the temperature of the flowers upwards of 2 °C above the ambient temperature. Bees show a preference for these heated flowers early in the season when temperatures are colder.

There is some traditional knowledge that I do not encourage you to attempt. In the past green hellebore has been used against worms in children. However, in 1762, two children died from such treatment at Fisherton Anger. It seems that they were treated with stinking hellebore, rather than green hellebore – perhaps showing that those in the past could be just as ignorant of the nature around them as some today. Further north, it is said that green hellebore was used to treat swollen udders in cows.

These days, I would suggest that hellebores are used purely for their aesthetic value as the plants are considered poisonous.

An interesting feature are the nectaries, which are the true petals on the plant and have evolved into tube-like structures to hold nectar for their pollinators, primarily bees and flies. These can be seen between the stamen and the sepals, which take over the petal's duty of being the 'showy' part of the plant.

There are so many variations of colour and designs of hellebore flowers, from white to chocolate and green to shades of pink.

The sepals of hellebores can remain on the plant well after the sexual parts of the flower have finished their job. They turn themselves to photosynthesis, possibly contributing energy to the development of the seeds. The bulging seed cases, show that it's been a good year for the hellebores.

The robust seeds of the hellebore are apparently difficult to get going and even after 8 weeks in a fridge can take up to 18 months to fully germinate.

Function of Nutrients in Plants

Notes for RHS Level 2: Unit 1: Element 2 Role of Nutrients: AO1: Function of Nutrients in Plants

The essential nutrients required for plant growth and development are divided into two categories: macronutrients and micronutrients.

Macronutrients are elements that plants require in larger amounts, with the elements used in the highest quantities gained from the air, being carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Erosion slowly releases all the other minerals from the Earth’s rocks.

Whether minerals are obtained from organic sources, such as composted vegetable matter, or inorganic sources, such as liquid blends of chemicals, does not matter to the plant as the mineral elements are the same.

However, the main difference is that organic sources slowly release small quantities of minerals into the soil, whereas inorganic fertilisers use concentrations of specific elements prepared for defined and immediate usage.

N-P-K ratios on fertiliser display the ratios between nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (K refers to the now obsolete neo-latin kalium). For example a formulation using a ratio of 0-10-10 would promote flower and fruit set.

The following table lists the macronutrients and their functions in plants:

 

Nutrient               Function

Nitrogen             Essential for the production of chlorophyll, amino acids, and nucleic acids.

Phosphorus        Involved in the production of ATP, DNA, and cell membranes.

Potassium           Regulates water balance, activates enzymes, and helps in the production of ATP.

Calcium              Essential for cell wall formation, cell division, and cell elongation.

Magnesium         A component of chlorophyll, and is involved in photosynthesis and enzyme activation.

Sulfur                  Required for the production of amino acids, proteins, and enzymes.

Carbon                Required for photosynthesis, the process by which plants produce their own food.

Oxygen               Required for respiration, the process by which plants convert food into energy.

Hydrogen            Required for the formation of organic compounds, such as carbohydrates and proteins.

 

In addition to macronutrients, plants also require micronutrients in smaller amounts for their growth and development. The following table lists some of the essential micronutrients and their functions in plants:

 

Nutrient               Function

Iron                    Essential for the production of chlorophyll and involved in photosynthesis.

Boron                 Required for cell wall formation, pollen tube growth, and seed production.

Manganese         Involved in photosynthesis, respiration, and enzyme activation.

Molybdenum      Required for nitrogen fixation and the production of enzymes.

 

Plants lacking macronutrients and micronutrients will find their growth and development adversely affected, leading to mineral nutrient deficiencies and disorders. The symptoms of nutrient deficiency can vary depending on the nutrient that is lacking. For example:

Nitrogen deficiency:        Plants may exhibit stunted growth, yellowing of leaves, and reduced leaf size.

Phosphorus deficiency:   Plants may exhibit stunted growth, dark green leaves, and reduced root growth.

Potassium deficiency:     Plants may exhibit yellowing of leaf margins, wilting, and reduced growth.

 

Deficiencies will be explored further in a future post.

Impact on plant specification on biosecurity (UK)

 Notes for Unit 1: Plant Specification: Integration: AO3 Impact on specification on biosecurity

 

Plant specification has a significant impact on biosecurity. When ordering plant material, it is important to consider the biosecurity of the plants you order. You should only order plant material from reputable suppliers who follow strict biosecurity protocols.

There are also strict rules for the importation of plants into the UK from the EU, including the necessity for a phytosanitary certificate. This certificate is issued from the plant health authority of the country where the plant material originates to guarantee that the material has been officially inspected, is free from pests and diseases and meets the legal requirements for the material to enter GB. There are costs associated with the importation process related to applying for phytosanitary certificates, checks and inspections that an individual importer is expected to meet. This does not apply to all plants, as there is a short list of low-risk plants that can be imported from the EU and third countries without the phytosanitary certificate. At the time of writing, this includes, but is not limited to, pineapple, persimmon, and banana. See the links below for further information.

 

UK Plant Passport

In addition, the UK has introduced a plant passport scheme and plants cannot use an EU plant passport for movement in the UK. While garden centres do not need to pass on a UK plant passport to customers, online retailers must supply the passport for traceability purposes.

 

The plant types you choose can also have an impact on biosecurity. Different plant types have different susceptibility to pests and diseases. For example, some plant types such as annuals and biennials are more susceptible to pests and diseases than others such as perennials. Schemes such as the RHS Award of Garden Merit have a series of requirements that ensure plants awarded are reasonably resistant to pests and diseases.

 

Material type is another important factor to consider when ordering plant material. The three main types of plant material are pot-grown, bare root, and rootballed / burlap. Each material type has its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of biosecurity. For example, bare root and pot grown plants are financially cheaper, but are more susceptible to damage during transportation, which can increase the risk of pest and disease transmission. While, the well developed root systems of rootballed/burlap plants, which are available during the dormant season for the species, are less susceptible to damage and therefore less likely to be infected with disease.

Bare root, rootballed, and potted plants.

 

Production method is also an important consideration. Plants can be grown using different methods such as conventional, organic, or biodynamic. It is important to choose a production method that aligns with your values and requirements.

Conventional production methods use synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to promote plant growth and control pests and diseases. While these methods are effective, they can have negative impacts on the environment and human health.

 

Organic production methods use natural fertilizers and pest control methods to promote plant growth and control pests and diseases. Organic methods are more sustainable and environmentally friendly than conventional methods, but they can be more expensive and less effective. For instance, the reliance on natural predators to remove pests can be less effective, while using natural compost and manure can introduce soil-borne diseases.

 

Biodynamic production methods are similar to organic methods, but they also incorporate spiritual and mystical practices. Biodynamic methods are less common than conventional and organic methods, but they are gaining popularity due to their focus on sustainability and holistic plant health. However, as with organic production, the reliance on natural predators to remove pests can be less effective, while using natural compost and manure can introduce soil-borne diseases.

 

Finally, environmental considerations are also important when ordering plant material. You should choose plants that are well-suited to your local climate and soil conditions. You should also consider the environmental impact of the production and transportation of the plant material.

 

By considering these factors, you can ensure that you order plant material that is healthy, sustainable, and well-suited to your needs.

 

Links for further information:
https://www.rhs.org.uk/prevention-protection/importing-and-exporting-plants

https://www.gov.uk/guidance/apply-for-plant-export-certificates-and-inspections

https://aphascience.blog.gov.uk/2023/03/01/plant-passports/

New Plant Biosecurity Strategy - UK Plant Health Information Portal (defra.gov.uk)

 

Plant Profile: 𝐒𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐬

Galanthus nivalis, commonly known as the snowdrop (or ‘Shame-faced maiden; in Wiltshire), is a perennial bulbous plant that belongs to the Amaryllidaceae family. It is native to Europe and the Middle East, and is widely cultivated in gardens and parks across the world. The first records of the snowdrop growing wild in Britain hark back to the 1770s.

The plant has narrow linear leaves and produces a single white flower that hangs from a slender stem. The flower has six petals, three inner and three outer, and is surrounded by a green ovary.

The snowdrop has a rich social history and is associated with hope and purity. It is one of the first plants to emerge from the cold winter soil, and has been used as a symbol of the coming of spring and the end of winter. The plant has also been used in traditional medicine to treat a variety of ailments, including headaches, fever, and joint pain.

There are several varieties of Galanthus nivalis, including the ‘Flore Pleno’, which has double flowers, and the ‘Viridapice’, which has green-tipped petals. The snowdrop has also been the subject of mythology and folklore and is said to have been created by the Greek god of the north wind, Boreas.

Said to be best planted ‘in the green’, rather than dormant bulbs, the snowdrop is known to attract bees and other insects, and is an important source of early-season nectar and pollen. It is also a valuable food source for small mammals such as voles and mice.

Galanthophiles, those that collect snowdrops, have been known to bid into the hundreds for just a single bulb, with the world’s most expensive snowdrop bulb being sold for £1,850 in 2012. The Golden Fleece snowdrop took 18 years to develop and holds the record for a single bulb, which was sold for £1,390.

In conclusion, Galanthus nivalis is a beautiful and fascinating plant with a rich history and mythology. Its delicate white flowers and slender stems make it a popular choice for gardens and parks, and its association with hope and purity has made it an enduring symbol of spring and new beginnings.

Here are some tips for growing snowdrops

Planting: Snowdrops should be planted in well-drained, nutrient-rich soil in a sunny or partly shaded location. They should be planted in the autumn before the ground freezes. Plant the bulbs two to three inches deep and two to four inches apart.

Watering: Water the bulbs regularly and keep the soil moist but not soggy.

Light: Grow snowdrops in moist but well-drained, hummus-rich soil in dappled shade.
Try growing snowdrops beneath deciduous shrubs, such as Cornus alba ‘Sibirica’, or along the front of borders where herbaceous plants can provide ground cover when the snowdrops are dormant.

Propagation: Snowdrops can be propagated by division in the spring or summer, or by seed in the autumn

Photographs: Galanthus nivalis, snowdrop cultivated variety, snowdrop seedheads.

Plant Lifecycle Adaptations

Personal notes for RHS Level 2 Certificate in the Principles of Plant Growth and Development
Unit 1: Plant Science 1: Lifecycle adaptations: AO2 Application

Plant life cycle adaptations have several advantages that help them survive in different environments. Some of these advantages include:

Exploitation of short growing season: In regions with a short growing season, plants have adapted to grow and reproduce quickly before the onset of winter. This adaptation allows them to complete their life cycle within a short period of time and produce seeds that can survive the winter and germinate in the following spring.

For example: Alpine forget-me-not: This plant is found in the alpine regions of Europe and has adapted to grow and reproduce quickly before the onset of winter.

Avoidance of extreme weather conditions: Plants have evolved various mechanisms to avoid extreme weather conditions such as drought, frost, and heatwaves. For example, some plants have developed deep roots to access water from underground sources, while others have developed thick leaves to reduce water loss through transpiration.

For example: Cushion plants: These plants are compact and low-growing, which helps them survive in cold and windy conditions. They trap airborne dust and use it as a source of nutrients.

Ecological niches: Plants have adapted to occupy specific ecological niches, which are unique habitats that provide specific environmental conditions. For example, some plants have adapted to grow in acidic soils, while others have adapted to grow in saline soils.

For example: xerophytic plants such as Joshua tree which has evolved a deep root system that allows it to access water stored deep in the soil. Its spiky leaves also help to reduce water loss through transpiration.

Growth in less favourable conditions: Plants have adapted to grow in less favourable conditions such as low light, low nutrient availability, and high salinity. For example, some plants have developed mechanisms to capture and digest insects to obtain nutrients, while others have developed symbiotic relationships with fungi to obtain nutrients.

For example, plants known as halophytes have evolved to tolerate high levels of salt in their environment, this includes Hibiscus syriacus, also known as rose of Sharon, this plant is a moderately salt-tolerant shrub that can grow in saline soils but in more extreme environments, Spartina alterniflora, also known as smooth cordgrass, is a plant that is found in salt marshes and can tolerate high levels of salt in the soil.

These adaptations have allowed plants to thrive in different environments and play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of ecosystems.

Agents of natural pollination

Personal notes for RHS Level 2 Certificate in the Principles of Plant Growth and Development

Unit 1: Plant Science 1: Pollination and fertilisation: AO1

The agents of natural pollination are diverse and can be broadly classified into two categories: biotic and abiotic.

𝐁𝐢𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐚𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 include pollinating animals such as bees, moths, flies, and birds.

The biotic agents are attracted to a flower due to such features as its colour, shape, or aroma.

The visitor to a flower then becomes a potential agent for pollination transfer, with the pollen from the male reproductive organ, known as the anther, dusted onto the animal's body. Should the animal then visit another flower of the same species, this pollen may then be inadvertently brushed onto the stigma, the female reproductive organ.

Whether pollination successfully leads to fertilisation on the same flower, or a different flower of the same species will depend on the species visited.


Flower shape can be a determining factor as to which species are able to visit the flower. Some flowers have evolved to perfectly match specific animal species. Perhaps, the most well-known example of this is the Star orchid (Angraecum sesquipedale), which is pollinated by the long-tongued moth commonly known as Morgan's predicted Sphinx moth. In 1862, Charles Darwin examined this orchid, predicting (supported by Alfred Russel Wallace) that a long-tongued moth would be found that pollinated it; no moth with that extreme length of tongue was known at the time.

Then, in 1903, he was proven correct when a long-tongued moth, Xanthopan morganii praedicta was discovered. It was so named because its occurrence had been predicted.

𝐀𝐛𝐢𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐚𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 include wind and water.

Wind-pollinated plants produce large amounts of pollen that is light in weight and easily carried by the wind. Some examples of wind-pollinated plants in the UK include willow (Salix), alder (Alnus), and birch (Betula)


Water-pollinated plants, on the other hand, release their pollen into the water, where it is carried to the female reproductive organs. Some examples of water-pollinated plants in the UK include water thyme (Hydrilla), ditch grasses (Ruppia), and waterweeds (Elodea).

Photo: Bumblebee (Bombus species) visiting Cowslip (Primula veris).

Basics of Life cycle adaptations

Personal notes for RHS Level 2 Certificate in the Principles of Plant Growth and Development
Unit 1: Plant Science 1: Lifecycle adaptations: AO1

Life cycle adaptations are the ways that plants have evolved to survive and reproduce in different environments. Based on their life cycle, plants can be classified into five categories:

• Ephemeral plants are those that have several life cycles in one growing season. They can germinate, grow, flower, and produce seeds in a short period of time, usually in response to favourable conditions such as rainfall. They can increase in numbers rapidly and colonize disturbed habitats. An example of an ephemeral plant is groundsel (Senecio vulgaris).
• Annual plants are those that complete their life cycle in one year or growing season. They germinate from seeds, grow, flower, produce seeds, and die within a year. They can be hardy, half-hardy, or tender, depending on their ability to withstand frost and low temperatures. Examples of annual plants are zinnia (Zinnia elegans) and marigold (Tagetes patula).
• Biennial plants are those that complete their life cycle in two years or growing seasons. They germinate from seeds and grow vegetatively in the first year, then flower, produce seeds, and die in the second year. Some plants that are botanically perennials are grown as biennials because they perform poorly after flowering. Examples of biennial plants are foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) and wallflower (Erysimum cheiri).
• Perennial plants are those that live for more than two years or growing seasons. They can be herbaceous or woody, depending on the presence or absence of secondary growth in their stems. Herbaceous perennials are non-woody plants that die back to a rootstock each autumn and regrow in the following spring.
  Examples of herbaceous perennials are hop (Humulus lupulus) and peony (Paeonia lactiflora).
  Woody perennials are plants that maintain live woody stems throughout the year and exhibit secondary growth. Examples of woody perennials are lilac (Syringa vulgaris) and oak (Quercus spp.).